res.acharya2013Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03reviewassociations only
Corporate governance and value creation: Evidence from private equity
Acharya, V. V., Gottschalg, O. F., Hahn, M., & Kehoe, C. (2013). Corporate governance and value creation: Evidence from private equity. Review of Financial Studies, 26(2), 368–402. https://doi.org/10.1093/rfs/hhs117
Key findings
In large European buyouts, value creation came mainly from operating improvements, and the professional background of the deal partner predicted which type of value-creation strategy worked best.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In large European buyouts, value creation came mainly from operating improvements, and the professional background of the deal partner predicted which type of value-creation strategy worked best.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.adams2009Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Understanding the relationship between founder-CEOs and firm performance
Adams, R. B., Almeida, H., & Ferreira, D. (2009). Understanding the relationship between founder-CEOs and firm performance. Journal of Empirical Finance, 16(1), 136–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jempfin.2008.05.002 (RePEc: https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/empfin/v16y2009i1p136-150.html)
Key findings
After correcting for the fact that founders tend to leave when things go well, founder-CEO leadership in large U.S. firms is associated with, and plausibly causes, better performance.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
After correcting for the fact that founders tend to leave when things go well, founder-CEO leadership in large U.S. firms is associated with, and plausibly causes, better performance.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.amir2018Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03reviewassociations only
Do firms underreport information on cyber-attacks? Evidence from capital markets
Amir, E., Levi, S., & Livne, T. (2018). Do firms underreport information on cyber-attacks? Evidence from capital markets. Review of Accounting Studies, 23(3), 1177–1206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11142-018-9452-4 Tier 1.
Key findings
Before mandatory disclosure, attacks that firms withheld and that were later exposed were associated with about a 3.6% equity decline versus 0.7% for firm-disclosed attacks — evidence that concealment is priced when discovered.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Before mandatory disclosure, attacks that firms withheld and that were later exposed were associated with about a 3.6% equity decline versus 0.7% for firm-disclosed attacks — evidence that concealment is priced when discovered.
res.anderson2003Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Founding-family ownership and firm performance: Evidence from the S&P 500
Anderson, R. C., & Reeb, D. M. (2003). Founding-family ownership and firm performance: Evidence from the S&P 500. Journal of Finance, 58(3), 1301–1328. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-6261.00567
Key findings
Among large U.S. firms in the 1990s, founding-family ownership was associated with better performance, though later quasi-experimental work shows heir-CEO successions in particular tend to hurt performance.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Among large U.S. firms in the 1990s, founding-family ownership was associated with better performance, though later quasi-experimental work shows heir-CEO successions in particular tend to hurt performance.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.angst2017Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
When do IT security investments matter? Accounting for the influence of institutional factors in the context of healthcare data breaches
Angst, C. M., Block, E. S., D'Arcy, J., & Kelley, K. (2017). When do IT security investments matter? Accounting for the influence of institutional factors in the context of healthcare data breaches. MIS Quarterly, 41(3), 893–916. https://doi.org/10.25300/MISQ/2017/41.3.10 (https://aisel.aisnet.org/misq/vol41/iss3/12/; author PDF: https://sites.nd.edu/coreyangst/files/2018/04/AngstBlockDArcyKelley2017MISQ_SymbolicBreach.pdf) Tier 1.
Key findings
Across 5,000+ hospitals, the same security investment was associated with fewer breaches only where adoption was substantive rather than symbolic — spending without integration did not buy protection.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Across 5,000+ hospitals, the same security investment was associated with fewer breaches only where adoption was substantive rather than symbolic — spending without integration did not buy protection.
res.ashenden2013Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
CISOs and organisational culture: Their own worst enemy?
Ashenden, D., & Sasse, A. (2013). CISOs and organisational culture: Their own worst enemy? Computers & Security, 39(B), 396–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cose.2013.09.004 (open post-print: https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1417350/) Tier 1.
Key findings
A small interview study found CISOs themselves described low perceived power, unclear role identity and weak employee engagement as the main obstacles to effectiveness — a description of the role's information and influence problem, from the inside.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
A small interview study found CISOs themselves described low perceived power, unclear role identity and weak employee engagement as the main obstacles to effectiveness — a description of the role's information and influence problem, from the inside.
res.bandiera2020Tier 2 · working paperVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
CEO behavior and firm performance
Bandiera, O., Prat, A., Hansen, S., & Sadun, R. (2020). CEO behavior and firm performance. Journal of Political Economy, 128(4), 1325–1377. https://doi.org/10.1086/705331 (Earlier: NBER Working Paper 23248, 2017.)
Key findings
In a six-country study of 1,114 manufacturing CEOs, CEOs whose weeks were more "leader-like" (multi-function, executive-team meetings) ran firms with roughly 7% higher sales, gains that appeared only after about three years; the authors estimate about 17% of firms had a CEO whose behavioral type did not fit the firm—while cautioning that this is a matching story, not proof that "leaders" are always better than "managers."
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In a six-country study of 1,114 manufacturing CEOs, CEOs whose weeks were more "leader-like" (multi-function, executive-team meetings) ran firms with roughly 7% higher sales, gains that appeared only after about three years; the authors estimate about 17% of firms had a CEO whose behavioral type did not fit the firm—while cautioning that this is a matching story, not proof that "leaders" are always better than "managers."
res.banker2019Tier 2 · working paperVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
The impact of information security breach incidents on CIO turnover
Banker, R. D., & Feng, C. (Q.). (2019). The impact of information security breach incidents on CIO turnover. Journal of Information Systems, 33(3), 309–329. https://doi.org/10.2308/isys-52532 (SSRN: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3788478) Tier 1 (American Accounting Association journal).
Key findings
CIO departures were about 72% more likely after breaches attributed to system deficiencies, but not after breaches attributed to fraud or human error — accountability appears to track the perceived scope of the executive's duties.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
CIO departures were about 72% more likely after breaches attributed to system deficiencies, but not after breaches attributed to fraud or human error — accountability appears to track the perceived scope of the executive's duties.
res.banker2011Tier 2 · working paperVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
CIO reporting structure, strategic positioning, and firm performance
Banker, R. D., Hu, N., Pavlou, P. A., & Luftman, J. (2011). CIO reporting structure, strategic positioning, and firm performance. MIS Quarterly, 35(2), 487–504. https://aisel.aisnet.org/misq/vol35/iss2/13/ (SSRN version: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1557874). Tier 1.
Key findings
In a large-firm archival study, the "right" CIO reporting line depended on strategy: CIO-to-CEO was associated with better performance in differentiation-strategy firms and CIO-to-CFO in cost-leadership firms — evidence that structure should follow the problem, not a universal rule.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In a large-firm archival study, the "right" CIO reporting line depended on strategy: CIO-to-CEO was associated with better performance in differentiation-strategy firms and CIO-to-CFO in cost-leadership firms — evidence that structure should follow the problem, not a universal rule.
res.benischke2019Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
CEO equity risk bearing and strategic risk taking: The moderating effect of CEO personality
Benischke, M. H., Martin, G. P., & Glaser, L. (2019). CEO equity risk bearing and strategic risk taking: The moderating effect of CEO personality. Strategic Management Journal, 40(1), 153–177. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2974
Key findings
The same equity incentives produce different strategic risk taking depending on the CEO's personality — conscientious CEOs respond to risk-bearing with more caution, extraverted and open CEOs with more boldness.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
The same equity incentives produce different strategic risk taking depending on the CEO's personality — conscientious CEOs respond to risk-bearing with more caution, extraverted and open CEOs with more boldness.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.benmelech2015Tier 2 · working paperVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Military CEOs
Benmelech, E., & Frydman, C. (2015). Military CEOs. Journal of Financial Economics, 117(1), 43–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2014.04.009 (NBER WP 19782)
Key findings
CEOs with military backgrounds run more conservatively and are markedly less likely to be associated with fraud, with better relative performance in industry downturns.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
CEOs with military backgrounds run more conservatively and are markedly less likely to be associated with fraud, with better relative performance in industry downturns.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.bennedsen2007Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Inside the family firm: The role of families in succession decisions and performance
Bennedsen, M., Nielsen, K. M., Pérez-González, F., & Wolfenzon, D. (2007). Inside the family firm: The role of families in succession decisions and performance. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 122(2), 647–691. https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.122.2.647
Key findings
Quasi-experimental Danish evidence indicates that choosing a family member over an outside professional as CEO causally lowers operating profitability by around four percentage points on average.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Quasi-experimental Danish evidence indicates that choosing a family member over an outside professional as CEO causally lowers operating profitability by around four percentage points on average.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.berger2014Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Executive board composition and bank risk taking
Berger, A. N., Kick, T., & Schaeck, K. (2014). Executive board composition and bank risk taking. Journal of Corporate Finance, 28, 48–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcorpfin.2013.11.006
Key findings
Quasi-experimental German evidence suggests executive-team age and education composition affect bank risk-taking, with younger teams taking more risk and PhD-heavy teams less.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Quasi-experimental German evidence suggests executive-team age and education composition affect bank risk-taking, with younger teams taking more risk and PhD-heavy teams less.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.bertrand2003Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Managing with style: The effect of managers on firm policies
Bertrand, M., & Schoar, A. (2003). Managing with style: The effect of managers on firm policies. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118(4), 1169–1208. https://doi.org/10.1162/003355303322552775
Key findings
Following executives across firms shows that individual managers carry persistent decision "styles" that explain meaningful variation in corporate policies, over and above firm characteristics.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Following executives across firms shows that individual managers carry persistent decision "styles" that explain meaningful variation in corporate policies, over and above firm characteristics.
res.bloom2007Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Measuring and explaining management practices across firms and countries
Bloom, N., & Van Reenen, J. (2007). Measuring and explaining management practices across firms and countries. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 122(4), 1351–1408. https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.2007.122.4.1351
Key findings
Systematically measured management practices vary widely across firms and predict performance, and primogeniture-based family succession is associated with worse management.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Systematically measured management practices vary widely across firms and predict performance, and primogeniture-based family succession is associated with worse management.
res.bloom2016Tier 2 · working paperPartially verified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Management as a technology? NBER Working Paper No
Bloom, N., Sadun, R., & Van Reenen, J. (2016, rev. 2017). Management as a technology? NBER Working Paper No. 22327. https://www.nber.org/papers/w22327 (also HBS Working Paper 16-133)
Key findings
Cross-country survey evidence suggests management quality explains a substantial share (on the order of a third) of productivity differences between firms and countries.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Cross-country survey evidence suggests management quality explains a substantial share (on the order of a third) of productivity differences between firms and countries.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.bloom2019Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03reviewassociations only
What drives differences in management practices?
Bloom, N., Brynjolfsson, E., Foster, L., Jarmin, R., Patnaik, M., Saporta-Eksten, I., & Van Reenen, J. (2019). What drives differences in management practices? American Economic Review, 109(5), 1648–1683. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20170491
Key findings
Census data on 35,000 U.S. plants show management practices explain over a fifth of productivity variation, and much of the variation lies within, not just between, firms.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Census data on 35,000 U.S. plants show management practices explain over a fifth of productivity variation, and much of the variation lies within, not just between, firms.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.buyl2019Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
CEO narcissism, risk-taking, and resilience: An empirical analysis in U.S
Buyl, T., Boone, C., & Wade, J. B. (2019). CEO narcissism, risk-taking, and resilience: An empirical analysis in U.S. commercial banks. Journal of Management, 45(4), 1372–1400. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206317699521
Key findings
In U.S. banks around 2008, archival markers of CEO narcissism predicted riskier pre-crisis policies (conditional on incentives and governance) and slower post-crisis recovery.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In U.S. banks around 2008, archival markers of CEO narcissism predicted riskier pre-crisis policies (conditional on incentives and governance) and slower post-crisis recovery.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.campbell2003Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
The economic cost of publicly announced information security breaches: Empirical evidence from the stock market
Campbell, K., Gordon, L. A., Loeb, M. P., & Zhou, L. (2003). The economic cost of publicly announced information security breaches: Empirical evidence from the stock market. Journal of Computer Security, 11(3), 431–448. https://doi.org/10.3233/JCS-2003-11308 Tier 1.
Key findings
An early event study found the market penalized breaches of confidential data but not other security incidents — evidence that investors price the type of breach, not the fact of one.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
An early event study found the market penalized breaches of confidential data but not other security incidents — evidence that investors price the type of breach, not the fact of one.
res.cavusoglu2004Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
The effect of internet security breach announcements on market value: Capital market reactions for breached firms and internet security developers
Cavusoglu, H., Mishra, B., & Raghunathan, S. (2004). The effect of internet security breach announcements on market value: Capital market reactions for breached firms and internet security developers. International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 9(1), 69–104. https://www.ijec-web.org/past-issues/volume-9-number-1-fall-2004/ijecv9n1-5/ (https://doi.org/10.1080/10864415.2004.11044320) Tier 1.
Key findings
In a 2004 event study, a publicly announced breach was associated with an average two-day market-value loss of about 2.1%, while security vendors' values rose — the market re-prices both the victim and the sector.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In a 2004 event study, a publicly announced breach was associated with an average two-day market-value loss of about 2.1%, while security vendors' values rose — the market re-prices both the victim and the sector.
res.chatterjee2007Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
It's all about me: Narcissistic chief executive officers and their effects on company strategy and performance
Chatterjee, A., & Hambrick, D. C. (2007). It's all about me: Narcissistic chief executive officers and their effects on company strategy and performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 52(3), 351–386. https://doi.org/10.2189/asqu.52.3.351
Key findings
In a study of 111 tech CEOs, higher measured narcissism was associated with bolder, more changeable strategies and more volatile results — but not with better or worse average performance.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In a study of 111 tech CEOs, higher measured narcissism was associated with bolder, more changeable strategies and more volatile results — but not with better or worse average performance.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.chatterjee2011Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Executive personality, capability cues, and risk taking: How narcissistic CEOs react to their successes and stumbles
Chatterjee, A., & Hambrick, D. C. (2011). Executive personality, capability cues, and risk taking: How narcissistic CEOs react to their successes and stumbles. Administrative Science Quarterly, 56(2), 202–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839211427534
Key findings
Narcissistic CEOs appear to discount objective performance feedback while amplifying their risk taking in response to media praise and awards.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Narcissistic CEOs appear to discount objective performance feedback while amplifying their risk taking in response to media praise and awards.
res.chatterjee2001Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Examining the shareholder wealth effects of announcements of newly created CIO positions
Chatterjee, D., Richardson, V. J., & Zmud, R. W. (2001). Examining the shareholder wealth effects of announcements of newly created CIO positions. MIS Quarterly, 25(1), 43–70. https://aisel.aisnet.org/misq/vol25/iss1/3/ Tier 1.
Key findings
When firms in industries undergoing IT-driven change created a CIO position, investors reacted positively on announcement — a signal of expected value, not evidence of realized value.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
When firms in industries undergoing IT-driven change created a CIO position, investors reacted positively on announcement — a signal of expected value, not evidence of realized value.
res.cragun2020Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03meta analysisassociations only
Making CEO narcissism research great: A review and meta-analysis of CEO narcissism
Cragun, O. R., Olsen, K. J., & Wright, P. M. (2020). Making CEO narcissism research great: A review and meta-analysis of CEO narcissism. Journal of Management, 46(6), 908–936. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206319892678
Key findings
Pooled across studies, CEO narcissism shows small positive associations with innovation/R&D and strategic boldness, but essentially no reliable link to average firm performance or to risk taking — and results vary with how narcissism is measured.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Pooled across studies, CEO narcissism shows small positive associations with innovation/R&D and strategic boldness, but essentially no reliable link to average firm performance or to risk taking — and results vary with how narcissism is measured.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.cram2019Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03meta analysisassociations only
Seeing the forest and the trees: A meta-analysis of the antecedents to information security policy compliance
Cram, W. A., D'Arcy, J., & Proudfoot, J. G. (2019). Seeing the forest and the trees: A meta-analysis of the antecedents to information security policy compliance. MIS Quarterly, 43(2), 525–554. https://doi.org/10.25300/MISQ/2019/15117 Tier 1.
Key findings
Pooled across 95 studies, employees' values and norms were far more strongly associated with security-policy compliance than sanctions or rewards were — the levers security leaders control most directly are the ones that matter least.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Pooled across 95 studies, employees' values and norms were far more strongly associated with security-policy compliance than sanctions or rewards were — the levers security leaders control most directly are the ones that matter least.
res.custodio2013Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Generalists versus specialists: Lifetime work experience and chief executive officer pay
Custódio, C., Ferreira, M. A., & Matos, P. (2013). Generalists versus specialists: Lifetime work experience and chief executive officer pay. Journal of Financial Economics, 108(2), 471–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2013.01.001
Key findings
The market pays a sizeable premium for CEOs with broad, transferable experience, particularly for complex mandates like restructurings and M&A.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
The market pays a sizeable premium for CEOs with broad, transferable experience, particularly for complex mandates like restructurings and M&A.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.detert2011Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Implicit voice theories: Taken-for-granted rules of self-censorship at work
Detert, J. R., & Edmondson, A. C. (2011). Implicit voice theories: Taken-for-granted rules of self-censorship at work. Academy of Management Journal, 54(3), 461–488. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2011.61967925
Key findings
Research on employee silence shows that most employees can recall withholding an important concern from a superior, mainly from fear of being labeled negatively or of futility (Milliken et al., 2003), and that widely held, largely unconscious "rules" about when speaking up is unsafe suppress upward candor even in objectively safe settings (Detert & Edmondson, 2011)—implying that CEOs should assume critical information is being filtered before it reaches them.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Research on employee silence shows that most employees can recall withholding an important concern from a superior, mainly from fear of being labeled negatively or of futility (Milliken et al., 2003), and that widely held, largely unconscious "rules" about when speaking up is unsafe suppress upward candor even in objectively safe settings (Detert & Edmondson, 2011)—implying that CEOs should assume critical information is being filtered before it reaches them.
res.edmondson1996Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Learning from mistakes is easier said than done: Group and organizational influences on the detection and correction of human error
Edmondson, A. C. (1996). Learning from mistakes is easier said than done: Group and organizational influences on the detection and correction of human error. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 32(1), 5–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886396321001 Tier 1.
Key findings
Units with better team climate reported more errors, not fewer — evidence that low incident counts can signal silence rather than safety, and that a security leader's incident-reporting numbers must be read with the reporting climate in mind. Pair with Edmondson (1999) for psychological safety proper.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Units with better team climate reported more errors, not fewer — evidence that low incident counts can signal silence rather than safety, and that a security leader's incident-reporting numbers must be read with the reporting climate in mind. Pair with Edmondson (1999) for psychological safety proper.
res.edmondson1999Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams
Edmondson, A. (1999). Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(2), 350–383. https://doi.org/10.2307/2666999
Key findings
Edmondson's foundational 1999 study of 51 teams in one manufacturer found that teams with higher psychological safety engaged in more learning behavior and performed better, with leader coaching as an antecedent—findings that later research has extended but that were originally cross-sectional and single-company.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Edmondson's foundational 1999 study of 51 teams in one manufacturer found that teams with higher psychological safety engaged in more learning behavior and performed better, with leader coaching as an antecedent—findings that later research has extended but that were originally cross-sectional and single-company.
res.fahlenbrach2011Tier 2 · working paperVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Bank CEO incentives and the credit crisis
Fahlenbrach, R., & Stulz, R. M. (2011). Bank CEO incentives and the credit crisis. Journal of Financial Economics, 99(1), 11–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2010.08.010 (NBER WP 15212)
Key findings
Evidence from the 2008 crisis does not support the view that misaligned CEO pay caused bank losses; CEOs with the most "skin in the game" ran banks that fared worst, suggesting misjudged risk rather than self-dealing.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Evidence from the 2008 crisis does not support the view that misaligned CEO pay caused bank losses; CEOs with the most "skin in the game" ran banks that fared worst, suggesting misjudged risk rather than self-dealing.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.fahlenbrach2009Tier 2 · working paperVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Founder-CEOs, investment decisions, and stock market performance
Fahlenbrach, R. (2009). Founder-CEOs, investment decisions, and stock market performance. Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 44(2), 439–466. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022109009090139 (RePEc: https://ideas.repec.org/a/cup/jfinqa/v44y2009i02p439-466_09.html; SSRN 606527)
Key findings
In a 1993–2002 sample of large U.S. firms, founder-led companies invested more heavily in R&D and capital projects and earned higher risk-adjusted stock returns than successor-led peers, though the evidence is correlational.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In a 1993–2002 sample of large U.S. firms, founder-led companies invested more heavily in R&D and capital projects and earned higher risk-adjusted stock returns than successor-led peers, though the evidence is correlational.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.feeny1992Tier 1 · peer-reviewedPartially verified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Understanding the CEO/CIO relationship
Feeny, D. F., Edwards, B. R., & Simpson, K. M. (1992). Understanding the CEO/CIO relationship. MIS Quarterly, 16(4), 435–448. https://aisel.aisnet.org/misq/vol16/iss4/1/ (an earlier version appeared at ICIS 1992: https://aisel.aisnet.org/icis1992/2/). Tier 1.
Key findings
Early qualitative research treated the CEO/CIO relationship itself — not the CIO's skills alone — as the unit of analysis for IT effectiveness (cite for the framing only until the abstract is confirmed).
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Early qualitative research treated the CEO/CIO relationship itself — not the CIO's skills alone — as the unit of analysis for IT effectiveness (cite for the framing only until the abstract is confirmed).
res.fitza2014Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations onlycontested
The use of variance decomposition in the investigation of CEO effects: How large must the CEO effect be to rule out chance? Strategic Management Journal, 35(12), 1839–1852
Fitza, M. A. (2014). The use of variance decomposition in the investigation of CEO effects: How large must the CEO effect be to rule out chance? Strategic Management Journal, 35(12), 1839–1852. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2192
Key findings
Simulations suggest a sizable apparent "CEO effect" can arise from chance alone given short tenures; the size of the true CEO effect is contested.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Simulations suggest a sizable apparent "CEO effect" can arise from chance alone given short tenures; the size of the true CEO effect is contested.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.fitza2017Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations onlycontested
How much do CEOs really matter? Reaffirming that the CEO effect is mostly due to chance
Fitza, M. A. (2017). How much do CEOs really matter? Reaffirming that the CEO effect is mostly due to chance. Strategic Management Journal, 38(3), 802–811. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2597
Key findings
Rejoinder maintaining that under realistic assumptions the measured CEO effect remains close to chance.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Rejoinder maintaining that under realistic assumptions the measured CEO effect remains close to chance.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.georgakakis2017Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
CEO succession origin and firm performance: A multilevel study
Georgakakis, D., & Ruigrok, W. (2017). CEO succession origin and firm performance: A multilevel study. Journal of Management Studies, 54(1), 58–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12194
Key findings
Peer-reviewed succession research finds no universal insider-or-outsider advantage: outsiders do better mainly when integration is easier and context is favorable (Georgakakis & Ruigrok, 2017), and the consequences of any successor type depend on what happens to the rest of the senior team afterward (Shen & Cannella, 2002).
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Peer-reviewed succession research finds no universal insider-or-outsider advantage: outsiders do better mainly when integration is easier and context is favorable (Georgakakis & Ruigrok, 2017), and the consequences of any successor type depend on what happens to the rest of the senior team afterward (Shen & Cannella, 2002).
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.gerow2014Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03meta analysisassociations only
Looking toward the future of IT–business strategic alignment through the past: A meta-analysis
Gerow, J. E., Grover, V., Thatcher, J. B., & Roth, P. L. (2014). Looking toward the future of IT–business strategic alignment through the past: A meta-analysis. MIS Quarterly, 38(4), 1159–1186. https://aisel.aisnet.org/misq/vol38/iss4/12/ Tier 1.
Key findings
Pooled across the literature, IT–business alignment is positively associated with performance on every dimension examined; the much-discussed "alignment paradox" largely disappears in meta-analysis.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Pooled across the literature, IT–business alignment is positively associated with performance on every dimension examined; the much-discussed "alignment paradox" largely disappears in meta-analysis.
res.gompers2016Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
What do private equity firms say they do?
Gompers, P., Kaplan, S. N., & Mukharlyamov, V. (2016). What do private equity firms say they do? Journal of Financial Economics, 121(3), 449–476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2016.06.003
Key findings
PE investors report that management quality and growth, not just cost-cutting or leverage, are central to their value-creation plans, and they often change the management team.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
PE investors report that management quality and growth, not just cost-cutting or leverage, are central to their value-creation plans, and they often change the management team.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.gordon2002Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
The economics of information security investment
Gordon, L. A., & Loeb, M. P. (2002). The economics of information security investment. ACM Transactions on Information and System Security, 5(4), 438–457. https://doi.org/10.1145/581271.581274 Tier 1.
Key findings
The Gordon–Loeb model gives a disciplined way to think about security spending as a function of expected loss, and shows that under common assumptions it is irrational to spend more than about a third of expected loss — a reasoning tool, with assumptions that must be stated whenever the 37% figure is quoted.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
The Gordon–Loeb model gives a disciplined way to think about security spending as a function of expected loss, and shows that under common assumptions it is irrational to spend more than about a third of expected loss — a reasoning tool, with assumptions that must be stated whenever the 37% figure is quoted.
res.gow2016Tier 2 · working paperVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
CEO personality and firm policies
Gow, I. D., Kaplan, S. N., Larcker, D. F., & Zakolyukina, A. A. (2016). CEO personality and firm policies. NBER Working Paper No. 22435. https://doi.org/10.3386/w22435 (SSRN: https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2813883; HLS Forum summary: https://corpgov.law.harvard.edu/?p=73500)
Key findings
Machine-learning estimates of CEO Big Five traits from earnings-call language are associated with firm policies (e.g., more R&D and less leverage under high openness), although the personality measures are noisy and the paper remains a working paper.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Machine-learning estimates of CEO Big Five traits from earnings-call language are associated with firm policies (e.g., more R&D and less leverage under high openness), although the personality measures are noisy and the paper remains a working paper.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.graham2013Tier 2 · working paperVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Managerial attitudes and corporate actions
Graham, J. R., Harvey, C. R., & Puri, M. (2013). Managerial attitudes and corporate actions. Journal of Financial Economics, 109(1), 103–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2013.01.010 (SSRN: https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1432641; author PDF: https://people.duke.edu/~charvey/Research/Published_Papers/P109_Managerial_attitudes_and.pdf)
Key findings
In a large survey, CEOs scored substantially more risk-tolerant and optimistic than the general population, and those traits were associated with more acquisitions, more short-term debt and different pay structures — associations, not proven causes.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In a large survey, CEOs scored substantially more risk-tolerant and optimistic than the general population, and those traits were associated with more acquisitions, more short-term debt and different pay structures — associations, not proven causes.
res.graham2015Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Capital allocation and delegation of decision-making authority within firms
Graham, J. R., Harvey, C. R., & Puri, M. (2015). Capital allocation and delegation of decision-making authority within firms. Journal of Financial Economics, 115(3), 449–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2014.10.011
Key findings
Large-scale survey evidence shows CEOs' delegation and capital-allocation decisions depend on their own bandwidth, tenure and expertise, and on the credibility of divisional leaders.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Large-scale survey evidence shows CEOs' delegation and capital-allocation decisions depend on their own bandwidth, tenure and expertise, and on the credibility of divisional leaders.
res.haislip2021Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
The impact of executives' IT expertise on reported data security breaches
Haislip, J., Lim, J.-H., & Pinsker, R. (2021). The impact of executives' IT expertise on reported data security breaches. Information Systems Research, 32(2), 318–334. https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.2020.0986 Tier 1.
Key findings
Firms whose CEO had IT expertise, and firms with a CIO on the top team, reported fewer data breaches over 2005–2017 — an association between top-team composition and breach outcomes, not a causal effect of any one appointment.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Firms whose CEO had IT expertise, and firms with a CIO on the top team, reported fewer data breaches over 2005–2017 — an association between top-team composition and breach outcomes, not a causal effect of any one appointment.
res.hambrick1987Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Managerial discretion: A bridge between polar views of organizational outcomes
Hambrick, D. C., & Finkelstein, S. (1987). Managerial discretion: A bridge between polar views of organizational outcomes. Research in Organizational Behavior, 9, 369–406. (No DOI; book-series chapter. Confirmed via Semantic Scholar/SciSpace and multiple citing sources.)
Key findings
The concept of managerial discretion (Hambrick & Finkelstein, 1987) holds that how much a CEO matters depends on the latitude the environment, the organization, and the executive's own makeup allow—and a 2015 review confirms empirical support is strongest for the environmental sources and weakest for the individual-level ones.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
The concept of managerial discretion (Hambrick & Finkelstein, 1987) holds that how much a CEO matters depends on the latitude the environment, the organization, and the executive's own makeup allow—and a 2015 review confirms empirical support is strongest for the environmental sources and weakest for the individual-level ones.
res.hambrick1991Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03reviewassociations only
The seasons of a CEO's tenure
Hambrick, D. C., & Fukutomi, G. D. S. (1991). The seasons of a CEO's tenure. Academy of Management Review, 16(4), 719–742. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1991.4279621
Key findings
Theory (Hambrick & Fukutomi, 1991) and early evidence (Miller, 1991) suggest that long CEO tenures carry a risk of "staleness"—growing commitment to an established paradigm and declining fit with a changing environment—though the seasons model itself is conceptual and tenure effects vary by context.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Theory (Hambrick & Fukutomi, 1991) and early evidence (Miller, 1991) suggest that long CEO tenures carry a risk of "staleness"—growing commitment to an established paradigm and declining fit with a changing environment—though the seasons model itself is conceptual and tenure effects vary by context.
res.hambrick1984Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03reviewassociations only
Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers
Hambrick, D. C., & Mason, P. A. (1984). Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers. Academy of Management Review, 9(2), 193–206. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1984.4277628
Key findings
Upper echelons theory holds that firms reflect their top managers' experiences, values and personalities — an organising framework rather than an empirical result.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Upper echelons theory holds that firms reflect their top managers' experiences, values and personalities — an organising framework rather than an empirical result.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.hambrick2007Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03reviewassociations only
Upper echelons theory: An update
Hambrick, D. C. (2007). Upper echelons theory: An update. Academy of Management Review, 32(2), 334–343. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2007.24345254
Key findings
The 2007 update argues that CEO characteristics matter most when the CEO has discretion and faces heavy job demands, and it urges research to measure executives' psychology directly.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
The 2007 update argues that CEO characteristics matter most when the CEO has discretion and faces heavy job demands, and it urges research to measure executives' psychology directly.
res.harrison2019Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Measuring CEO personality: Developing, validating, and testing a linguistic tool
Harrison, J. S., Thurgood, G. R., Boivie, S., & Pfarrer, M. D. (2019). Measuring CEO personality: Developing, validating, and testing a linguistic tool. Strategic Management Journal, 40(8), 1316–1330. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.3023
Key findings
A validated language-based measure of CEO personality shows that Big Five traits are related to the degree of strategic change, with effects conditioned by recent firm performance.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
A validated language-based measure of CEO personality shows that Big Five traits are related to the degree of strategic change, with effects conditioned by recent firm performance.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.harrison2020Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Perception is reality: How CEOs' observed personality influences market perceptions of firm risk and shareholder returns
Harrison, J. S., Thurgood, G. R., Boivie, S., & Pfarrer, M. D. (2020). Perception is reality: How CEOs' observed personality influences market perceptions of firm risk and shareholder returns. Academy of Management Journal, 63(4), 1166–1195. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2018.0626
Key findings
Investors appear to price CEO personality: observed conscientiousness is associated with lower perceived risk and better returns, whereas observed extraversion and neuroticism are associated with higher perceived risk.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Investors appear to price CEO personality: observed conscientiousness is associated with lower perceived risk and better returns, whereas observed extraversion and neuroticism are associated with higher perceived risk.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.hayward2004Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Believing one's own press: The causes and consequences of CEO celebrity
Hayward, M. L. A., Rindova, V. P., & Pollock, T. G. (2004). Believing one's own press: The causes and consequences of CEO celebrity. Strategic Management Journal, 25(7), 637–653. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.405
Key findings
Hayward and colleagues theorise that media-created CEO celebrity fosters hubris and strategic persistence; empirical support comes from later studies such as Malmendier & Tate (2009).
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Hayward and colleagues theorise that media-created CEO celebrity fosters hubris and strategic persistence; empirical support comes from later studies such as Malmendier & Tate (2009).
res.herrmann2014Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Managing strategic change: The duality of CEO personality
Herrmann, P., & Nadkarni, S. (2014). Managing strategic change: The duality of CEO personality. Strategic Management Journal, 35(9), 1318–1342. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2156
Key findings
CEO conscientiousness appears to cut both ways — dampening the initiation of strategic change while improving the performance of changes that are implemented (evidence from 120 SMEs).
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
CEO conscientiousness appears to cut both ways — dampening the initiation of strategic change while improving the performance of changes that are implemented (evidence from 120 SMEs).
res.higgs2016Tier 2 · working paperVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
The relationship between board-level technology committees and reported security breaches
Higgs, J. L., Pinsker, R. E., Smith, T. J., & Young, G. R. (2016). The relationship between board-level technology committees and reported security breaches. Journal of Information Systems, 30(3), 79–98. https://publications.aaahq.org/jis/article-abstract/30/3/79/1035/The-Relationship-between-Board-Level-Technology (SSRN: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3234337) Tier 1.
Key findings
Boards with technology committees reported more breaches (plausibly because they detect and disclose more) and their firms suffered smaller stock-price penalties when external breaches occurred — evidence that visible board oversight changes both reporting and market response.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Boards with technology committees reported more breaches (plausibly because they detect and disclose more) and their firms suffered smaller stock-price penalties when external breaches occurred — evidence that visible board oversight changes both reporting and market response.
res.hirshleifer2012Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Are overconfident CEOs better innovators?
Hirshleifer, D., Low, A., & Teoh, S. H. (2012). Are overconfident CEOs better innovators? Journal of Finance, 67(4), 1457–1498. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6261.2012.01753.x
Key findings
Overconfident CEOs are associated with more R&D, more patents and more innovation per R&D dollar — but only in innovative industries, and alongside higher firm-level volatility.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Overconfident CEOs are associated with more R&D, more patents and more innovation per R&D dollar — but only in innovative industries, and alongside higher firm-level volatility.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.ho2016Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
CEO overconfidence and financial crisis: Evidence from bank lending and leverage
Ho, P.-H., Huang, C.-W., Lin, C.-Y., & Yen, J.-F. (2016). CEO overconfidence and financial crisis: Evidence from bank lending and leverage. Journal of Financial Economics, 120(1), 194–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2015.04.007
Key findings
Banks led by CEOs who exhibit option-based markers of overconfidence expanded lending and leverage faster before crises and performed worse during them.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Banks led by CEOs who exhibit option-based markers of overconfidence expanded lending and leverage faster before crises and performed worse during them.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.hollenbeck2006Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Statistical power and parameter stability when subjects are few and tests are many: Comment on Peterson, Smith, Martorana, and Owens (2003)
Hollenbeck, J. R., DeRue, D. S., & Mannor, M. J. (2006). Statistical power and parameter stability when subjects are few and tests are many: Comment on Peterson, Smith, Martorana, and Owens (2003). Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(1), 1–5.
Key findings
Methodological critique showing the Peterson et al. (2003) 17-CEO findings are underpowered and unstable.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Methodological critique showing the Peterson et al. (2003) 17-CEO findings are underpowered and unstable.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.ians2026Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03descriptive practitionerassociations only
IANS Research & Artico Search. (2026, January 16). State of the CISO 2026 Benchmark Report ("A Role Divided"). https://www.iansresearch.com/resources/2026-state-of-the-ciso--a-role-divided (press release: https://www.ians.com/press/2026-report-finds-executive-level-ciso-titles-more-prevalent-than-ever; coverage: https://www.techtarget.com/searchsecurity/feature/Majority-of-CISOs-now-hold-executive-level-titles-IANS-reports) Tier 3 — practitioner survey, not peer-reviewed.
Key findings
In a 2026 practitioner survey of 600+ security leaders, roughly two-thirds of CISOs reported to the CIO or CTO and about one-third to a non-IT executive; about half held executive-level titles, and about half said the role was not manageable with current resources (practitioner data; base rates only).
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In a 2026 practitioner survey of 600+ security leaders, roughly two-thirds of CISOs reported to the CIO or CTO and about one-third to a non-IT executive; about half held executive-level titles, and about half said the role was not manageable with current resources (practitioner data; base rates only).
res.ibm2025Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03descriptive practitionerassociations only
IBM & Ponemon Institute. (2025, July 30). Cost of a Data Breach Report 2025. https://www.ibm.com/reports/data-breach (analysis: https://www.ibm.com/think/x-force/2025-cost-of-a-data-breach-navigating-ai) Tier 3 — practitioner report, not peer-reviewed.
Key findings
IBM/Ponemon's 2025 sample of ~600 breached organizations put the average breach cost at $4.44 million and average identify-and-contain time at 241 days — vendor-sponsored practitioner estimates, useful as an order of magnitude only.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
IBM/Ponemon's 2025 sample of ~600 breached organizations put the average breach cost at $4.44 million and average identify-and-contain time at 241 days — vendor-sponsored practitioner estimates, useful as an order of magnitude only.
res.judge2002Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03qualitativeassociations only
Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review
Judge, T. A., Bono, J. E., Ilies, R., & Gerhardt, M. W. (2002). Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 765–780. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.765
Key findings
Across 73 samples, extraversion, conscientiousness, openness and emotional stability are each modestly related to who emerges as and is rated an effective leader (multiple R ≈ .48) — evidence from general leadership samples, not specifically CEOs.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Across 73 samples, extraversion, conscientiousness, openness and emotional stability are each modestly related to who emerges as and is rated an effective leader (multiple R ≈ .48) — evidence from general leadership samples, not specifically CEOs.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.kamiya2021Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Risk management, firm reputation, and the impact of successful cyberattacks on target firms
Kamiya, S., Kang, J.-K., Kim, J., Milidonis, A., & Stulz, R. M. (2021). Risk management, firm reputation, and the impact of successful cyberattacks on target firms. Journal of Financial Economics, 139(3), 719–749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2019.05.019 Tier 1.
Key findings
Successful cyberattacks that expose personal financial data are associated with shareholder losses far exceeding direct costs, smaller losses where boards had already attended to risk management, and subsequent increases in risk-management investment and cuts to managers' risk-taking incentives.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Successful cyberattacks that expose personal financial data are associated with shareholder losses far exceeding direct costs, smaller losses where boards had already attended to risk management, and subsequent increases in risk-management investment and cuts to managers' risk-taking incentives.
res.kaplan2021Tier 2 · working paperVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Are CEOs different?
Kaplan, S. N., & Sorensen, M. (2021). Are CEOs different? Journal of Finance, 76(4), 1773–1811. https://doi.org/10.1111/jofi.13019 (Earlier NBER WP 23832, 2017, titled "Are CEOs Different? Characteristics of Top Managers": https://www.nber.org/papers/w23832)
Key findings
In a large set of structured executive assessments, CEO candidates differed from CFO candidates on general ability, execution orientation, charisma and strategic focus — and boards appeared to favour interpersonal skills at hiring even though execution ability better predicted later advancement.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In a large set of structured executive assessments, CEO candidates differed from CFO candidates on general ability, execution orientation, charisma and strategic focus — and boards appeared to favour interpersonal skills at hiring even though execution ability better predicted later advancement.
res.kaplan2012Tier 2 · working paperVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Which CEO characteristics and abilities matter?
Kaplan, S. N., Klebanov, M. M., & Sorensen, M. (2012). Which CEO characteristics and abilities matter? Journal of Finance, 67(3), 973–1007. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6261.2012.01739.x (NBER WP 14195: https://www.nber.org/papers/w14195)
Key findings
Among PE/VC-backed CEO candidates, "execution" abilities (resoluteness, efficiency, persistence) predicted subsequent success more strongly than interpersonal/"soft" abilities did.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Among PE/VC-backed CEO candidates, "execution" abilities (resoluteness, efficiency, persistence) predicted subsequent success more strongly than interpersonal/"soft" abilities did.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.karaevli2007Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Performance consequences of new CEO 'outsiderness': Moderating effects of pre- and post-succession contexts
Karaevli, A. (2007). Performance consequences of new CEO 'outsiderness': Moderating effects of pre- and post-succession contexts. Strategic Management Journal, 28(7), 681–706. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.589
Key findings
Karaevli's 30-year study of two U.S. industries found no general advantage for outsider CEOs; outsiders helped mainly when the firm was performing poorly or its environment was turbulent, and the effect depended on what changed alongside the succession.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Karaevli's 30-year study of two U.S. industries found no general advantage for outsider CEOs; outsiders helped mainly when the firm was performing poorly or its environment was turbulent, and the effect depended on what changed alongside the succession.
res.karahanna2013Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
The effect of social capital of the relationship between the CIO and top management team on firm performance
Karahanna, E., & Preston, D. S. (2013). The effect of social capital of the relationship between the CIO and top management team on firm performance. Journal of Management Information Systems, 30(1), 15–56. https://www.jmis-web.org/articles/506 Tier 1.
Key findings
In 81 hospitals, the quality of the CIO's relationship with the top team was associated with better alignment and, through alignment, with financial performance — relationship quality as a mechanism, measured correlationally.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In 81 hospitals, the quality of the CIO's relationship with the top team was associated with better alignment and, through alignment, with financial performance — relationship quality as a mechanism, measured correlationally.
res.karanja2017Tier 1 · peer-reviewedPartially verified · as of 2026-09-03reviewassociations only
The role of the chief information security officer in the management of IT security
Karanja, E. (2017). The role of the chief information security officer in the management of IT security. Information & Computer Security, 25(3), 300–329. https://doi.org/10.1108/ICS-02-2016-0013 Tier 1 (Emerald, peer-reviewed).
Key findings
Cite only as "peer-reviewed research has examined CISO appointments and reporting positions in relation to breach events (Karanja, 2017)" until verification is completed.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Cite only as "peer-reviewed research has examined CISO appointments and reporting positions in relation to breach events (Karanja, 2017)" until verification is completed.
res.kashmiri2017Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Birds of a feather: Intra-industry spillover of the Target customer data breach and the shielding role of IT, marketing, and CSR
Kashmiri, S., Nicol, C. D., & Hsu, L. (2017). Birds of a feather: Intra-industry spillover of the Target customer data breach and the shielding role of IT, marketing, and CSR. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 45(2), 208–228. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-016-0486-5 Tier 1.
Key findings
After the Target breach, 168 other US retailers lost value on average, and the loss was smaller for firms with stronger IT, marketing and CSR positions — a breach at a peer is priced against you, moderated by your own visible capabilities.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
After the Target breach, 168 other US retailers lost value on average, and the loss was smaller for firms with stronger IT, marketing and CSR positions — a breach at a peer is priced against you, moderated by your own visible capabilities.
res.kwon2014Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Proactive versus reactive security investments in the healthcare sector
Kwon, J., & Johnson, M. E. (2014). Proactive versus reactive security investments in the healthcare sector. MIS Quarterly, 38(2), 451–471. https://aisel.aisnet.org/misq/vol38/iss2/8/ Tier 1.
Key findings
In US healthcare, security investment made before a failure was associated with lower subsequent failure rates and better cost-effectiveness than investment made after one, and regulatory pressure weakened the benefit of proactive investment.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In US healthcare, security investment made before a failure was associated with lower subsequent failure rates and better cost-effectiveness than investment made after one, and regulatory pressure weakened the benefit of proactive investment.
res.lee2017Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Are founder CEOs more overconfident than professional CEOs? Evidence from S&P 1500 companies
Lee, J. M., Hwang, B.-H., & Chen, H. (2017). Are founder CEOs more overconfident than professional CEOs? Evidence from S&P 1500 companies. Strategic Management Journal, 38(3), 751–769. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2519
Key findings
Using language- and option-based proxies, founder CEOs of S&P 1500 firms display measurably more optimistic/overconfident behaviour than professional CEOs.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Using language- and option-based proxies, founder CEOs of S&P 1500 firms display measurably more optimistic/overconfident behaviour than professional CEOs.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.lee2020Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03quasi experimentalcausal language permitted
Founder CEOs and innovation: Evidence from CEO sudden deaths in public firms
Lee, J. M., Kim, J., & Bae, J. (2020). Founder CEOs and innovation: Evidence from CEO sudden deaths in public firms. Research Policy, 49(1), 103862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2019.103862
Key findings
Quasi-experimental evidence from sudden CEO deaths suggests founder CEOs sustain more exploratory, higher-variance patenting than the professional CEOs who replace them, at similar R&D spend.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Quasi-experimental evidence from sudden CEO deaths suggests founder CEOs sustain more exploratory, higher-variance patenting than the professional CEOs who replace them, at similar R&D spend.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.li2010Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
CEO hubris and firm risk taking in China: The moderating role of managerial discretion
Li, J., & Tang, Y. (2010). CEO hubris and firm risk taking in China: The moderating role of managerial discretion. Academy of Management Journal, 53(1), 45–68. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.48036912
Key findings
In a survey of 2,790 Chinese manufacturing CEOs, hubristic CEOs took more risk—and markedly more so when they had greater discretion (e.g., when they also chaired the board or faced less organizational inertia).
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In a survey of 2,790 Chinese manufacturing CEOs, hubristic CEOs took more risk—and markedly more so when they had greater discretion (e.g., when they also chaired the board or faced less organizational inertia).
res.malhotra2018Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
The acquisitive nature of extraverted CEOs
Malhotra, S., Reus, T. H., Zhu, P., & Roelofsen, E. M. (2018). The acquisitive nature of extraverted CEOs. Administrative Science Quarterly, 63(2), 370–408. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839217712240
Key findings
More extraverted CEOs (measured from their unscripted speech) pursue more and larger acquisitions, especially where they have more discretion.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
More extraverted CEOs (measured from their unscripted speech) pursue more and larger acquisitions, especially where they have more discretion.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.malmendier2005Tier 2 · working paperVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
CEO overconfidence and corporate investment
Malmendier, U., & Tate, G. (2005). CEO overconfidence and corporate investment. Journal of Finance, 60(6), 2661–2700. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6261.2005.00813.x (NBER WP 10807)
Key findings
CEOs who under-diversify their personal holdings (a proxy for overconfidence) run firms whose investment tracks internal cash flow more closely — a pattern consistent with over-optimism about their own projects.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
CEOs who under-diversify their personal holdings (a proxy for overconfidence) run firms whose investment tracks internal cash flow more closely — a pattern consistent with over-optimism about their own projects.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.malmendier2008Tier 2 · working paperVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Who makes acquisitions? CEO overconfidence and the market's reaction
Malmendier, U., & Tate, G. (2008). Who makes acquisitions? CEO overconfidence and the market's reaction. Journal of Financial Economics, 89(1), 20–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2007.07.002 (NBER WP 10813)
Key findings
Overconfident CEOs (by option-holding and press proxies) were roughly two-thirds more likely to acquire, and investors reacted more negatively to their deals.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Overconfident CEOs (by option-holding and press proxies) were roughly two-thirds more likely to acquire, and investors reacted more negatively to their deals.
res.malmendier2009Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Superstar CEOs
Malmendier, U., & Tate, G. (2009). Superstar CEOs. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 124(4), 1593–1638. https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.2009.124.4.1593
Key findings
CEOs who attain "superstar" status via media awards tend to underperform afterwards, earn more, and divert effort outside the firm, especially where governance is weak.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
CEOs who attain "superstar" status via media awards tend to underperform afterwards, earn more, and divert effort outside the firm, especially where governance is weak.
res.malmendier2011Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Overconfidence and early-life experiences: The effect of managerial traits on corporate financial policies
Malmendier, U., Tate, G., & Yan, J. (2011). Overconfidence and early-life experiences: The effect of managerial traits on corporate financial policies. Journal of Finance, 66(5), 1687–1733. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6261.2011.01685.x
Key findings
Both measurable overconfidence and formative early-life experiences (Depression, military service) predict systematic differences in CEOs' financing choices.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Both measurable overconfidence and formative early-life experiences (Depression, military service) predict systematic differences in CEOs' financing choices.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.maynard2018Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03reviewassociations only
Defining the strategic role of the Chief Information Security Officer
Maynard, S. B., Onibere, M., & Ahmad, A. (2018). Defining the strategic role of the Chief Information Security Officer. Pacific Asia Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 10(3), Article 3 (pp. 61–86). https://doi.org/10.17705/1pais.10303 (https://aisel.aisnet.org/pajais/vol10/iss3/3/) Tier 1 (AIS journal, peer-reviewed).
Key findings
A systematic review concluded that the CISO's strategic role is under-theorized and proposed a competency set for the CISO-as-strategist — a framework-level contribution, not an outcome finding.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
A systematic review concluded that the CISO's strategic role is under-theorized and proposed a competency set for the CISO-as-strategist — a framework-level contribution, not an outcome finding.
res.miller1991Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Stale in the saddle: CEO tenure and the match between organization and environment
Miller, D. (1991). Stale in the saddle: CEO tenure and the match between organization and environment. Management Science, 37(1), 34–52. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.37.1.34
Key findings
Theory (Hambrick & Fukutomi, 1991) and early evidence (Miller, 1991) suggest that long CEO tenures carry a risk of "staleness"—growing commitment to an established paradigm and declining fit with a changing environment—though the seasons model itself is conceptual and tenure effects vary by context.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Theory (Hambrick & Fukutomi, 1991) and early evidence (Miller, 1991) suggest that long CEO tenures carry a risk of "staleness"—growing commitment to an established paradigm and declining fit with a changing environment—though the seasons model itself is conceptual and tenure effects vary by context.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.milliken2003Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
An exploratory study of employee silence: Issues that employees don't communicate upward and why
Milliken, F. J., Morrison, E. W., & Hewlin, P. F. (2003). An exploratory study of employee silence: Issues that employees don't communicate upward and why. Journal of Management Studies, 40(6), 1453–1476. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6486.00387
Key findings
Research on employee silence shows that most employees can recall withholding an important concern from a superior, mainly from fear of being labeled negatively or of futility (Milliken et al., 2003), and that widely held, largely unconscious "rules" about when speaking up is unsafe suppress upward candor even in objectively safe settings (Detert & Edmondson, 2011)—implying that CEOs should assume critical information is being filtered before it reaches them.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Research on employee silence shows that most employees can recall withholding an important concern from a superior, mainly from fear of being labeled negatively or of futility (Milliken et al., 2003), and that widely held, largely unconscious "rules" about when speaking up is unsafe suppress upward candor even in objectively safe settings (Detert & Edmondson, 2011)—implying that CEOs should assume critical information is being filtered before it reaches them.
res.nacd2023Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03descriptive practitionerassociations only
National Association of Corporate Directors & Internet Security Alliance. (2023, March 22). 2023 Director's Handbook on Cyber-Risk Oversight (fourth edition; forewords by CISA Director Jen Easterly and the FBI). https://isalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Cyber-Risk-Oversight-Handbook_WEB.pdf (press release: https://www.nacdonline.org/about/newsroom/press-release/press-release/nacd-and-isa-launch-2023-cyber-risk-oversight-handbook-featuring-cisa-and-fbi/). A fifth edition was published in 2026: https://www.nacdonline.org/globalassets/public-pdfs/2026_directors-handbook-cyber-risk_print.pdf Tier 3 — practitioner guidance, not peer-reviewed.
Key findings
The NACD/ISA handbook is the de facto US reference for board cyber-risk oversight and frames cyber as an enterprise-risk and governance matter rather than an IT matter — cite for what boards are advised to do, not for evidence that it works.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
The NACD/ISA handbook is the de facto US reference for board cyber-risk oversight and frames cyber as an enterprise-risk and governance matter rather than an IT matter — cite for what boards are advised to do, not for evidence that it works.
res.nadkarni2010Tier 1 · peer-reviewedPartially verified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
CEO personality, strategic flexibility, and firm performance: The case of the Indian business process outsourcing industry
Nadkarni, S., & Herrmann, P. (2010). CEO personality, strategic flexibility, and firm performance: The case of the Indian business process outsourcing industry. Academy of Management Journal, 53(5), 1050–1073. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.54533196
Key findings
In a sample of 195 Indian BPO firms, CEO personality predicted how strategically flexible the firm was, and flexibility in turn explained the link between CEO personality and performance.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In a sample of 195 Indian BPO firms, CEO personality predicted how strategically flexible the firm was, and flexibility in turn explained the link between CEO personality and performance.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.nist2024Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
National Institute of Standards and Technology. (2024, February 26). The NIST Cybersecurity Framework (CSF) 2.0 (NIST CSWP 29; authors Pascoe, Quinn & Scarfone). https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.CSWP.29 (https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/CSWP/NIST.CSWP.29.pdf) FACT source.
Key findings
Since February 2024 the NIST CSF has treated governance — including executive and board accountability for cyber risk — as a function co-equal with technical functions (FACT).
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Since February 2024 the NIST CSF has treated governance — including executive and board accountability for cyber risk — as a function co-equal with technical functions (FACT).
res.ou2014Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Humble chief executive officers' connections to top management team integration and middle managers' responses
Ou, A. Y., Tsui, A. S., Kinicki, A. J., Waldman, D. A., Xiao, Z., & Song, L. J. (2014). Humble chief executive officers' connections to top management team integration and middle managers' responses. Administrative Science Quarterly, 59(1), 34–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839213520131
Key findings
In 63 Chinese private firms, CEO humility was linked through empowering leadership and top-team integration to an empowering climate and stronger engagement, commitment, and performance among middle managers.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In 63 Chinese private firms, CEO humility was linked through empowering leadership and top-team integration to an empowering climate and stronger engagement, commitment, and performance among middle managers.
res.ou2018Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Do humble CEOs matter? An examination of CEO humility and firm outcomes
Ou, A. Y., Waldman, D. A., & Peterson, S. J. (2018). Do humble CEOs matter? An examination of CEO humility and firm outcomes. Journal of Management, 44(3), 1147–1173. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206315604187 (first published online Sept 2015)
Key findings
In a study of 105 U.S. tech SMEs, CEOs rated as more humble by their top teams had more integrated top teams and smaller CEO–team pay gaps, which were in turn linked to more ambidextrous strategy and better performance.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In a study of 105 U.S. tech SMEs, CEOs rated as more humble by their top teams had more integrated top teams and smaller CEO–team pay gaps, which were in turn linked to more ambidextrous strategy and better performance.
res.owens2012Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03qualitativeassociations only
Modeling how to grow: An inductive examination of humble leader behaviors, contingencies, and outcomes
Owens, B. P., & Hekman, D. R. (2012). Modeling how to grow: An inductive examination of humble leader behaviors, contingencies, and outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 55(4), 787–818. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.0441
Key findings
Owens and Hekman identify three observable humble-leader behaviors—admitting mistakes and limits, spotlighting others' strengths, and modeling teachability—and their later experimental and field work shows leader humility can spread to teams and improve team performance, with the caveat that humility appears less effective under extreme threat or time pressure.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Owens and Hekman identify three observable humble-leader behaviors—admitting mistakes and limits, spotlighting others' strengths, and modeling teachability—and their later experimental and field work shows leader humility can spread to teams and improve team performance, with the caveat that humility appears less effective under extreme threat or time pressure.
res.owens2016Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
How does leader humility influence team performance? Exploring the mechanisms of contagion and collective promotion focus
Owens, B. P., & Hekman, D. R. (2016). How does leader humility influence team performance? Exploring the mechanisms of contagion and collective promotion focus. Academy of Management Journal, 59(3), 1088–1111. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2013.0660
Key findings
Owens and Hekman identify three observable humble-leader behaviors—admitting mistakes and limits, spotlighting others' strengths, and modeling teachability—and their later experimental and field work shows leader humility can spread to teams and improve team performance, with the caveat that humility appears less effective under extreme threat or time pressure.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Owens and Hekman identify three observable humble-leader behaviors—admitting mistakes and limits, spotlighting others' strengths, and modeling teachability—and their later experimental and field work shows leader humility can spread to teams and improve team performance, with the caveat that humility appears less effective under extreme threat or time pressure.
res.peppard2010Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03qualitativeassociations only
Unlocking the performance of the chief information officer (CIO)
Peppard, J. (2010). Unlocking the performance of the chief information officer (CIO). California Management Review, 52(4), 73–99. https://store.hbr.org/product/unlocking-the-performance-of-the-chief-information-officer-cio/CMR465 Tier 1/3 boundary (CMR is a refereed practitioner-oriented journal); interview-based.
Key findings
Interview-based research argues that a CIO's effectiveness is bounded by the IT literacy and expectations of the CEO and top team — a contextual, not individual, account of CIO performance.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Interview-based research argues that a CIO's effectiveness is bounded by the IT literacy and expectations of the CEO and top team — a contextual, not individual, account of CIO performance.
res.peterson2003Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations onlycontested
The impact of chief executive officer personality on top management team dynamics: One mechanism by which leadership affects organizational performance
Peterson, R. S., Smith, D. B., Martorana, P. V., & Owens, P. D. (2003). The impact of chief executive officer personality on top management team dynamics: One mechanism by which leadership affects organizational performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 795–808. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.795
Key findings
An early 17-CEO historiometric study suggested CEO personality shapes top-team dynamics, but a published methodological critique showed the estimates are too unstable to rely on individually.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
An early 17-CEO historiometric study suggested CEO personality shapes top-team dynamics, but a published methodological critique showed the estimates are too unstable to rely on individually.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.porter2018Tier 3 · practitionerVerified · as of 2026-09-03descriptive practitionerassociations only
How CEOs manage time
Porter, M. E., & Nohria, N. (2018, July–August). How CEOs manage time. Harvard Business Review, 96(4), 42–51. https://hbr.org/2018/07/how-ceos-manage-time
Key findings
Porter and Nohria's HBR time study of 27 large-company CEOs (a descriptive, non-peer-reviewed study) found they worked ~9.7 hours per weekday, spent roughly 72% of work time in meetings, and spent only about 3% of their time with customers.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Porter and Nohria's HBR time study of 27 large-company CEOs (a descriptive, non-peer-reviewed study) found they worked ~9.7 hours per weekday, spent roughly 72% of work time in meetings, and spent only about 3% of their time with customers.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.preston2009Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Antecedents of IS strategic alignment: A nomological network
Preston, D. S., & Karahanna, E. (2009). Antecedents of IS strategic alignment: A nomological network. Information Systems Research, 20(2), 159–179. https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.1070.0159 Tier 1.
Key findings
In 243 matched CIO–executive pairs, formal mechanisms and shared knowledge — not informal socializing — were associated with the shared understanding that underpins IT–business alignment.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In 243 matched CIO–executive pairs, formal mechanisms and shared knowledge — not informal socializing — were associated with the shared understanding that underpins IT–business alignment.
res.preston2008Tier 1 · peer-reviewedPartially verified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Examining the antecedents and consequences of CIO strategic decision-making authority: An empirical study
Preston, D. S., Chen, D., & Leidner, D. E. (2008). Examining the antecedents and consequences of CIO strategic decision-making authority: An empirical study. Decision Sciences, 39(4), 605–642. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5915.2008.00206.x Tier 1.
Key findings
CIO effectiveness depends on the match between the authority the organization grants and the capability the CIO brings; authority without capability ("IT Mechanic") and capability without authority ("IT Advisor") are both described as under-performing profiles (cite the MISQE companion for the profiles; cite the Decision Sciences paper only for the general proposition).
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
CIO effectiveness depends on the match between the authority the organization grants and the capability the CIO brings; authority without capability ("IT Mechanic") and capability without authority ("IT Advisor") are both described as under-performing profiles (cite the MISQE companion for the profiles; cite the Decision Sciences paper only for the general proposition).
res.perezgonzalez2006Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03reviewassociations only
Inherited control and firm performance
Pérez-González, F. (2006). Inherited control and firm performance. American Economic Review, 96(5), 1559–1588. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.96.5.1559
Key findings
In U.S. family-controlled public firms, handing the CEO role to a family heir, especially one without an elite education, is associated with sizeable declines in profitability and valuation.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In U.S. family-controlled public firms, handing the CEO role to a family heir, especially one without an elite education, is associated with sizeable declines in profitability and valuation.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.quigley2017Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations onlycontested
Reaffirming the CEO effect is significant and much larger than chance: A comment on Fitza (2014)
Quigley, T. J., & Graffin, S. D. (2017). Reaffirming the CEO effect is significant and much larger than chance: A comment on Fitza (2014). Strategic Management Journal, 38(3), 793–801. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2503
Key findings
Reply arguing the CEO effect is significant and larger than chance under multilevel modeling.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Reply arguing the CEO effect is significant and larger than chance under multilevel modeling.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.quigley2015Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations onlycontested
Has the "CEO effect" increased in recent decades? A new explanation for the great rise in America's attention to corporate leaders
Quigley, T. J., & Hambrick, D. C. (2015). Has the "CEO effect" increased in recent decades? A new explanation for the great rise in America's attention to corporate leaders. Strategic Management Journal, 36(6), 821–830. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2258
Key findings
Variance-decomposition evidence that the share of performance variance associated with CEO identity rose across 1950–2009 — contested by Fitza.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Variance-decomposition evidence that the share of performance variance associated with CEO identity rose across 1950–2009 — contested by Fitza.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.sec2023Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
US Securities and Exchange Commission. (2023, July 26). Cybersecurity Risk Management, Strategy, Governance, and Incident Disclosure (Final rule; Release Nos. 33-11216; 34-97989). https://www.sec.gov/files/rules/final/2023/33-11216.pdf (press release 2023-139: https://www.sec.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2023-139) FACT source.
Key findings
Since December 2023, US public companies must disclose material cyber incidents within four business days of a materiality determination and describe board oversight and management's cyber expertise annually (FACT).
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Since December 2023, US public companies must disclose material cyber incidents within four business days of a materiality determination and describe board oversight and management's cyber expertise annually (FACT).
res.shen2002Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Revisiting the performance consequences of CEO succession: The impacts of successor type, postsuccession senior executive turnover, and departing CEO tenure
Shen, W., & Cannella, A. A., Jr. (2002). Revisiting the performance consequences of CEO succession: The impacts of successor type, postsuccession senior executive turnover, and departing CEO tenure. Academy of Management Journal, 45(4), 717–733. https://doi.org/10.2307/3069306
Key findings
Peer-reviewed succession research finds no universal insider-or-outsider advantage: outsiders do better mainly when integration is easier and context is favorable (Georgakakis & Ruigrok, 2017), and the consequences of any successor type depend on what happens to the rest of the senior team afterward (Shen & Cannella, 2002).
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Peer-reviewed succession research finds no universal insider-or-outsider advantage: outsiders do better mainly when integration is easier and context is favorable (Georgakakis & Ruigrok, 2017), and the consequences of any successor type depend on what happens to the rest of the senior team afterward (Shen & Cannella, 2002).
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.tourish2006Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Sensemaking and the distortion of critical upward communication in organizations
Tourish, D., & Robson, P. (2006). Sensemaking and the distortion of critical upward communication in organizations. Journal of Management Studies, 43(4), 711–730. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2006.00608.x
Key findings
Research on employee silence shows that most employees can recall withholding an important concern from a superior, mainly from fear of being labeled negatively or of futility (Milliken et al., 2003), and that widely held, largely unconscious "rules" about when speaking up is unsafe suppress upward candor even in objectively safe settings (Detert & Edmondson, 2011)—implying that CEOs should assume critical information is being filtered before it reaches them.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Research on employee silence shows that most employees can recall withholding an important concern from a superior, mainly from fear of being labeled negatively or of futility (Milliken et al., 2003), and that widely held, largely unconscious "rules" about when speaking up is unsafe suppress upward candor even in objectively safe settings (Detert & Edmondson, 2011)—implying that CEOs should assume critical information is being filtered before it reaches them.
res.verizon2025Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03descriptive practitionerassociations only
Verizon Business. (2025, April 23). 2025 Data Breach Investigations Report (18th edition). Full report: https://www.verizon.com/business/resources/reports/2025-dbir-data-breach-investigations-report.pdf; executive summary: https://www.verizon.com/business/resources/reports/2025-dbir-executive-summary.pdf; announcement: https://www.verizon.com/about/news/2025-data-breach-investigations-report Tier 3 — practitioner report, not peer-reviewed.
Key findings
In the 2025 DBIR's sample of 12,195 breaches, third parties were involved in 30%, ransomware in 44%, and the human element in about 60% — descriptive base rates from a non-random contributor sample.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In the 2025 DBIR's sample of 12,195 breaches, third parties were involved in 30%, ransomware in 44%, and the human element in about 60% — descriptive base rates from a non-random contributor sample.
res.wangrow2015Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03reviewassociations only
Managerial discretion: An empirical review and focus on future research directions
Wangrow, D. B., Schepker, D. J., & Barker, V. L., III. (2015). Managerial discretion: An empirical review and focus on future research directions. Journal of Management, 41(1), 99–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206314554214
Key findings
The concept of managerial discretion (Hambrick & Finkelstein, 1987) holds that how much a CEO matters depends on the latitude the environment, the organization, and the executive's own makeup allow—and a 2015 review confirms empirical support is strongest for the environmental sources and weakest for the individual-level ones.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
The concept of managerial discretion (Hambrick & Finkelstein, 1987) holds that how much a CEO matters depends on the latitude the environment, the organization, and the executive's own makeup allow—and a 2015 review confirms empirical support is strongest for the environmental sources and weakest for the individual-level ones.
res.wasserman2003Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Founder-CEO succession and the paradox of entrepreneurial success
Wasserman, N. (2003). Founder-CEO succession and the paradox of entrepreneurial success. Organization Science, 14(2), 149–172. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.14.2.149.14995
Key findings
In venture-backed start-ups, reaching key milestones (product completion, new funding rounds) is strongly associated with founders being replaced as CEO.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In venture-backed start-ups, reaching key milestones (product completion, new funding rounds) is strongly associated with founders being replaced as CEO.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.wasserman2008Tier 3 · practitionerVerified · as of 2026-09-03descriptive practitionerassociations only
The founder's dilemma
Wasserman, N. (2008). The founder's dilemma. Harvard Business Review, 86(2), 102–109. https://hbr.org/2008/02/the-founders-dilemma (PubMed 18314638)
Key findings
Wasserman's start-up data suggest a tension between founder control and firm value, with most founders ceding the CEO role before an exit.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Wasserman's start-up data suggest a tension between founder control and firm value, with most founders ceding the CEO role before an exit.
Used in
not yet cited in a module
res.weill2004Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03descriptive practitionerassociations only
Weill, P., & Ross, J. W. (2004). IT Governance: How Top Performers Manage IT Decision Rights for Superior Results. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. ISBN 9781591392538. https://books.google.com/books/about/IT_Governance.html?id=0Gfraz7FyrYC Tier 3 (research-based practitioner book from MIT CISR; not peer-reviewed).
Key findings
A large MIT CISR study associated well-designed IT decision rights with materially higher profitability (the authors report >25%) — a practitioner finding useful for framing governance as a design choice, not as proof that governance causes profit.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
A large MIT CISR study associated well-designed IT decision rights with materially higher profitability (the authors report >25%) — a practitioner finding useful for framing governance as a design choice, not as proof that governance causes profit.
res.zhang2010Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
Once an outsider, always an outsider? CEO origin, strategic change, and firm performance
Zhang, Y., & Rajagopalan, N. (2010). Once an outsider, always an outsider? CEO origin, strategic change, and firm performance. Strategic Management Journal, 31(3), 334–346. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.812
Key findings
Among 193 U.S. CEOs, strategic change showed an inverted-U relationship with performance, and outsider CEOs experienced both larger gains from moderate change and larger losses from excessive change than insiders did.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
Among 193 U.S. CEOs, strategic change showed an inverted-U relationship with performance, and outsider CEOs experienced both larger gains from moderate change and larger losses from excessive change than insiders did.
res.zhang2017Tier 1 · peer-reviewedVerified · as of 2026-09-03cross sectionalassociations only
CEO humility, narcissism and firm innovation: A paradox perspective on CEO traits
Zhang, H., Ou, A. Y., Tsui, A. S., & Wang, H. (2017). CEO humility, narcissism and firm innovation: A paradox perspective on CEO traits. The Leadership Quarterly, 28(5), 585–604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.01.003
Key findings
In two studies of Chinese CEOs, firms led by CEOs who scored high on both humility and narcissism showed the strongest innovation outcomes, suggesting the traits can be complementary rather than opposed—though the evidence is correlational and from one country.
Method & limitations
See bibliography.
Usable claim
In two studies of Chinese CEOs, firms led by CEOs who scored high on both humility and narcissism showed the strongest innovation outcomes, suggesting the traits can be complementary rather than opposed—though the evidence is correlational and from one country.
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not yet cited in a module